- Modern methods: intrauterine device, injection, pill, vaginal methods (spermicides, foams, jellies, creams, diaphragm), male condom, female sterilization, male sterilization, voluntary surgical contraception (VSC), calendar method (where the woman has a good knowledge of her ovulatory cycle).

Another study on negative reproductive outcomes in occupational health settings revealed that hazardous occupational health settings have negative effects on menstrual, ovulatory and hormonal patterns, with consequences for fertility of couples and fecundity of women; pregnancy outcomes, such as increased risk of fetal loss, pre-maturity, low birth weight, congenital defects and disease in the offspring; and infection-related infertility and infant mortality aggravated by exposure to chemical and physical pollutants.